# Memory model

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Defines the semantics of computer memory storage for the purpose of the C++ abstract machine.

The memory available to a C++ program is one or more contiguous sequences of bytes. Each byte in memory has a unique address.

### Byte

A byte is the smallest addressable unit of memory. It is defined as a contiguous sequence of bits, large enough to hold

- the value of any `UTF-8` code unit (256 distinct values) and of

- any member of the basic execution character set.

(until C++23)

- the ordinary literal encoding of any element of the basic literal character set.

(since C++23)

Similar to C, C++ supports bytes of sizes 8 bits and greater.

The types char, unsigned char, and signed char use one byte for both storage and value representation. The number of bits in a byte is accessible as CHAR_BIT or std::numeric_limits <unsigned char>::digits.

### Memory location

A memory location is the storage occupied by the object representation of either an object of scalar type that is not a bit-field, or the largest contiguous sequence of bit-fields of non-zero length.

Note: Various features of the language, such as references and virtual functions, might involve additional memory locations that are not accessible to programs but are managed by the implementation.

    struct S
    {
        char a;     // memory location #1
        int b : 5;  // memory location #2
        int c : 11, // memory location #2 (continued)
              : 0,
            d : 8;  // memory location #3
        struct
        {
            int ee : 8; // memory location #4
        } e;
    } obj; // The object “obj” consists of 4 separate memory locations

### Defect reports

The following behavior-changing defect reports were applied retroactively to previously published C++ standards.

DR | Applied to | Behavior as published | Correct behavior
--- | --- | --- | ---
CWG 1953 | C++98 | objects occupying the same storage were considered as different memory locations | memory location now refers to storage

### See also

C documentation for Memory model

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